FUNDAMENTAL FORCES
By Prof. L. Kaliambos (Natural Philosopher in New Energy) August 12 , 2015 ' ' INTRODUCTION After my discovery of the dipole nature of photon presented at the international conference "Frontiers of fundamental physics" (1993), today it is well known that in 1687 Newton formulated his well-established law of gravity and his third law of instantaneous action-reaction in the fundamental action at a distance confirmed by the famous experiments of the Quantum Entanglement. Also it is well known that Newton’s particles of light having mass (1704) were confirmed by Soldner in the bending of light (1801). So the gravitational red shift, the experiment of Michelson and Morley (1887) and the recognition of the so-called electromagnetic mass by J.J. Thomson (1881) were able to explain the Kauffmann experiment (1901). However it is indeed unfortunate that Einstein using his wrong hypothesis of massless quanta of fields developed his invalid theories of special and general relativity (1905 and 1915) which did much to retard the progress of physics. See my THOMSON AND MICHELSON REJECT EINSTEIN and INVALID GENERAL RELATIVITY). Furthermore, after the discovery of the assumed uncharged neutron (1932) physicists under the invalid relativity (EXPERIMENTS REJECT RELATIVITY) abandoned the other two well-established laws of electric force ( Coulomb 1785) and of magnetic force ( Ampere 1820) in favor of wrong strong and weak forces of the WRONG STANDARD MODEL which did much to retard the progress of atomic and nuclear physics. Under this physics crisis of Fundamental Interactions, today many physicists believe incorrectly that in nature there are four interactions—gravitational, electromagnetic, strong nuclear, and weak nuclear. In fact, gravitation and electromagnetism act over a potentially infinite distance across the universe. However today theoretical physicists working beyond the wrong Standard Model seek to quantize the gravitational forces toward false hypotheses that particle physicists can experimentally confirm, thus yielding acceptance to a theory of quantum gravity (QG). Other theorists seek to unite the fallacious electroweak and strong fields within a Grand Unified Theory (GUT). Yet some theories, such as the string theory, seek both QG and GUT within one framework, unifying fallacious interactions along with mass production within a theory of everything (ToE). It is of interest to note that in my paper "Nuclear structure is governed by the fundamental laws of electromagnetism" (2003) I showed that the so-called strong interaction is the result of interacting charge distributions in nucleons due to 9 extra charged quarks in proton and 12 ones in neutron. The charge distributions give very strong, but very short-ranged like the dipole-dipole interactions. They act only over ranges of order 10-15 meters and are responsible for holding the nuclei of atoms together. The electromagnetic force causes electric and magnetic effects such as the repulsion between like electrical charges or the interaction of bar magnets. It is long-ranged, but in nuclei and quarks it is of short range like the dipole-dipole intercactions. It can be attractive or repulsive, and acts only between pieces of matter carrying electrical charge. The weak electromagnetic force is responsible for the absorption of dipole photons in the photon-matter interaction which is similar to the radioactive decay and neutrino interactions. ( See my NEUTRINO-QUARK INTERACTION). It has a very short range and, as its name indicates, it is very weak electromagnetic interaction. The gravitational force is weak, but very long ranged. Furthermore, it is always attractive, and acts between any two pieces of matter in the Universe since mass is its source. Although gravitation is extremely weak, it always wins over cosmological distances and therefore is the most important force for the understanding of the large scale structure andevolution of the Universe. However today cosmologists under the wrong standard model believe incorrectly that such fallacious forces in our present Universe are distinct and have very different characteristics. Especially there is a rather strong belief that in the very early Universe when temperatures were very high compared with today, the false weak, the coreect electromagnetic, and the wrong strong forces were unified into a single force. Only when the temperature dropped did these forces separate from each other, with the strong force separating first and then at a still lower temperature the electromagnetic and false weak forces separating toleave us with the 4 forces. The process of the forces separating from each other is called spontaneous symmetry breaking. ( See my INVALIDITY OF HIGGS BOSON). There is further speculation, that at even higher temperatures (the Planck Scale) all four fallacious forces were unified into a single force. Then, as the temperature dropped, gravitation separated first and then the other 3 forces separated as described in wrong theories. In fact ,during the early universe the high temperature led to non orientation of spins and only electric forces of short range and gravitational forces of long range occurred in OUR EARLY UNIVERSE. UNIFIED FORCES OF THE WELL-ESTABLISHED LAWS OF ELECTROMAGNETISM ''' Prior to 1820 electric and magnetic forces were regarded as two separate interactions . That year, Oersted demonstrated that an electric current generates a magnetic force . Later Weber (1856) found experimentally that the constants K and k of electric and magnetic forces respectively are given by the simple relation K/k = c2 where c is the speed of light . Thus, for simplicity, when a dipole with opposite charges (+q and -q) moves at a velocity u, with respect to the source , and the dipole axis r is perpendicular to u, the two basic laws of Coulomb and Ampere give Fe and Fm acting at a distance as: Fe = Kq2/r2 and Fm = kq2u2/r2 . So Fe/Fm = c2/u2 . This simple result of unified forces of laws acting at a distance led me to develop the model of dipolic photons, since for u = c the moving dipole gives time varying Ey/Bz = c like the results of Maxwell’s fallacious self-propagating fields. Today many physicists believe that Maxwell was the first who unified the electric and magnetic phenomena. In fact, he used Faraday’s wrong concepts of fields and Weber’s correct experiments on electromagnetism. Maxwell in his paper "A Dynamical Theory of the Electromagnetic Field" goes on to discuss some of his results in the following paragraphs: “The conception of the propagation of transverse magnetic disturbances to the exclusion of normal ones is distinctly set forth by Professor Faraday in his Thoughts on Ray Vibrations... and that the velocity of propagation is the velocity υ found from experiments such as those of Weber...” Unfortunately though Newton’s particles of light were confirmed by Soldner (1801) at the beginning of the 20th century Einstein after the abandonment of Newton’s particles of light and following Faraday’s and Maxwell’s wrong concepts of fields developed his massless quanta of fields which led to his invalid theories of special and general relativity by assuming that relative motions are responsible for the increase of the mass of particles and fields can produce curvatures of vacuum etc. In fact, the increase of the electron mass in the photoelectric effect is due to the absorption of the photon mass, because the opposite charges of the dipolic photon interacts weakly with the charge of the electron. Hence, the so-called “relativistic mass” is a fallacious concept because the theory of relative motions with respect to a randomly moving observer leads to complications. (See my PHOTON OF LAWS AND EXPERIMENTS ). '''ELECTROMAGNETIC AND GRAVITATIONAL PROPERTIES OF PHOTONS LED TO MY DISCOVERY OF UNIFIED FORCES OF LAWS It is of interest to note that Newton’s predictions of gravitational interactions of his particles of light led to my discovery of the photon mass m = hν/c2 which invalidates Einstein’s relativity with a fallacious curvature of vacuum. For example in quantum dynamics when the gravitational force Fg acting on the photon mass is parallel to the velocity c, the mass of the dipolic photon increases under the applications of Newton’s second law. That is, in this direction of gravitational interactions a photon has a variable mass which differs fundamentally from the constant inerial mass of particles. However, when Fg acts in perpendicular direction to the velocity c the mass of the dipolic photon is accelerated and remains constant like the constant inertial mass of all particles. (bending of light). Einstein under his massless quanta of fields sought to unify the electromagnetic and gravitational interactions in terms of fields , but without success. Later the assumed uncharged neutrons, photons, neutrinos, and antineutrinos complicated more the problem, because theoretical physicists abandoned the basic laws of electromagnetism in favor of unknown strong and weak forces mediated by virtual photons, gravitons, mesons, gluons, and bosons (W ,Z). In fact, as in atoms and molecules, the nuclear structure is due to simple electromagnetic forces between the spinning nucleons having extra charged quarks able to interact electromagnetically for making the nuclear structure. Also the neutrinos and antineutrinos are absorbed by quarks like the absorptions of photons, because they have apposite charges and interact electromagnetically with the charged quarks . Of course these two simple cases invalidate the so-called strong and weak interactions. (See my NEW ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR PHYSICS ). That is, in the simple fundamental laws of gravity and electromagnetism providing forces acting at a distance physicists added complicated strong and weak forces mediated by fallacious fields, curved vacuum, and virtual photons with more false force carriers, like the Aristotelian geometry of motions and the fifth element, the ether. Under this confusion, physicists have proposed several variants of theories called Grand Unified Theories and String theories in order to reduce the additional incorrect number of forces with their false mediators. In my paper "Nuclear structure...." (2002) I showed with a large number of differential equations that the so-called strong interaction is due to the electromagnetic forces of the basic laws of Coulomb and Ampere acting at a distance. This action leads correctly to the nuclear structure, while the wrong nuclear theories cannot lead to the nuclear structure. (See my DISCOVERY OF NUCLEAR FORCE AND STRUCTURE ) Moreover the spinning photons of opposite charges give the same electromagnetic interactions like the neutrinos and antineutrinos which have opposite charges and interact electromagnetically with the spinning quarks in nucleons. Notice that fundamental particles like the spinning electrons, positrons, neutrinos, antineutrinos, up and down quarks, have peripheral velocities greater than the speed of light for giving magnetic attractions greater than the electric repulsions. Until about 1980 it was assumed that unification of forces required that gravity be reformulated within the context of Einstein’s relativity but all attempts to construct a relativistic theory of gravity failed dismally. In a correct way (without using fallacious theories) I found a relationship between electromagnetic and gravitational forces by using the PHOTON OF LAWS AND EXPERIMENTS since a photon has a mass m of opposite charges. For example when the opposite charges of such a photon interact with an electron we get dw/dm = c2 by using the at a distance interaction in terms of fields as: Ey (-e) dy = dw and Bz(-e)dy = Fm dt = dp = cdm. Since Ey/Bz = c we get dw/dm = c2 = hν/m Surprisingly we see that the gravitational force Fg due to the mass m of photons interacting with a mass M of a massive star is able to give the same result dw/dm = c2 which means that, under the quantum physics, gravity and electromagnetism are unified correctly.( See my DISCOVERY OF UNIFIED FORCES). This is the well-known gravitational blue shift when a photon moves toward a massive star. That is, because of the variable photon mass, which differs fundamentally from the constant inertial mass of particles, one observes a blue shift energy hδν. Of course it is similar to the kinetic energy of a simple particle of constant mass accelerated in a gravitational field. Note that Einstein in his general relativity used incorrectly his relativistic accelerations of particles which lead to complications, because he believed that in nature there is a universal principle of relativity giving always his relativistic accelerations. So, under such wrong axioms he thought that the fundamental Newtonian accelerations in gravity are a limited case of his conclusions. In fact, we can see just the opposite situation, because applications of Newton’s laws give the general correct results of both the kinetic energy of particles and the gravitational frequency shift of photons as: Fgds = dw = (dp/dt) ds = d(mu)/dtds = +u(dm/dt)ds In Newton's own formulation of the second law, he states that the force acting on a body is equal to the change of its momentum F = d(mu)/dt. But it was far more convinient to use the rate of change of velocity. It is a very simple version F = m(du/dt) formalized by the Swiss mathematician Euler(1750), because physicists did not know that Newton's particles of light have a variable mass able to give an energy of blue shift similar to the kinetic energy of particles having a constant inertial mass. For a particle with a constant inertial mass we use the well-known first term, because the gravitational interaction affects the velocity u. This leads to the fundamental formula Fg = moa = GmM/r2 which covers all accelerations, no matter what is the velocity of the particle. Whereas Einstein’s the so-called relativistic accelerations are due to the limited case. In fact, in quantum dynamics when the photons are absorbed by the particles they give off their mass to particles under my discovery of the Photon-Matter Interaction. Note that for a dipolic photon operating at c with electric attraction equal to magnetic repulsion that is Fe = Fm the velocity c in free space cannot be affected by Fg and remains constant. In the direction of the velocity c the speed of light is the result of the attractive Fe which is equal to the repulsive Fm . This equality gives the velocity c which is always perpendicular to the vectors of Fe and Fm . Whereas the speed c of a photon moving through the air is reduced, because the opposite charges of photons cause a polarization of molecules, which reduce the attractive electric forces of photons. In general, for a photon moving in free space since u = c we use the second term as: Fgds = dw = c(dm/dt)ds = dmc2 or dw/dm = c2 = hν/m This formula is very important because it unifies the gravity with the forces of electromagnetism. Moreover it leads us to calculate the gravitational frequency shift δν by using the height H of a homogeneous field . Since the photon has a variable mass the potential energy mgH can be transformed into the energy hδν. Thus we write: mgH = hδν. Then comparing it with mc2 = hν one gets δν/ν = gH/c2 That is, the gravitational interaction explains the gravitational frequency shift, by using the second term of Newton’s second law. Under this condition the gravitational frequency shift δν/ν for light emitted at the surface of a massive star, like a NEUTRON STAR or a BLACK HOLE , is very important because in general gH leads to the GM/R, where M is the great mass of the neutron star and R is its radius. In this case it is well-known that M of a neutron star is greater than the mass of our sun, while the R is much smaller. Note that Einstein in his general relativity ptoposed that such a sufficiently compact mass will deform space and time to form a neutron star or a black hole. Moreover Einstein suggested incorrectly that on the cosmic scale his curvuture of vacuum might have the effect of making the universe finite though unbounded. In fact, the formation of a neutron star is due to the characteristic long-ranged gravitational attractions which are very important in very massive stars. In our paper "Nuclear structure is governed by the fundamental laws of electromagnetism" we showed that the neutron stars are formed when the long-ranged gravitational attraction overcomes the short-ranged repulsions between neutrons. The opposite situation is observed in very heavy nuclei, where the long-ranged electric repulsions of protons overcome the short-ranged electromagnetic attractions of the proton-neutron systems and lead to the decay. We conclude also that all basic laws of Newton, Coulomb and Ampere providing forces acting at a distance lead to the law of Photon-Matter Transformation. For example in this case the applications of Newton’s second law give: Fds = dw = (dp/dt)ds = d(mu)/dtds = u(mdu +udm) Since the experiments of Kaufmann showed that m2/mo2 = c2/(c2-u2) differentiation gives 2mdmc2 = 2udum2 + 2mdmu2 or dmc2 = u(mdu +udm) = dw Of course all these equal results of the applications of electromagnetism and Newton’s laws under the quantum physics led me to discover not only the unification of all forces but also the fundamental principle of “Matter -Photon Transformation” expressed by ΔΕ/ΔΜ = hν/m = c2 which invalidates relativity. Under this condition we analyze historically the wrong concepts of special and general theories of relativity with very simple mathematics in order to present carefully with understandable examples all the false assumptions of Einstein. LAWS AND EXPERIMENTS REJECT STRING THEORIES Historically string theories developed for replacing the very small particles of physics by one-dimensional objects called strings. So String theorists tried to find another way for replacing the nuclear theories which seemed to unify gravity with the fallacious forces (the strong nuclear and the weak nuclear force). In the 1960's a new string theory was developed by theorists in order to understand the phenomena of hadronic and mesonic particles which had been found around that time, but it was soon replaced, in the 1970's, by the theory of Gell-Mann called Quantum Chromodynamics (QCD). This early string theory had major deficiencies. It contained imaginary mass particles or "tachyons", leading to problems in the quantum theory, the closed strings (loops) contained fallacious massless gravitons which were not observed because I showed that in nature massless photons or massless particles cannot exist. For example the massless photons of Einstein led to his invalid relativity.. Finally the theory was inconsistent unless the number of Einstein’s spacetime dimensions was 26. Though the Schrodinger equation in three dimensions solved all the problems of atomic physics for the hydrogen atom, another string theory was developed in the early 1980's, when Michael Green (Queen Mary) and John Schwarz (CalTech) proposed supersymmetric strings, or superstrings. Superstrings had no tachyons and had a quantum theory. Unfortunately, they believed that they predicted a "gauge group" for the fallacious forces of strong and weak interactions. They proposed energy limits as supergravities, or supersymmetric quantum theories living in ten spacetime dimensions. On the other hand, though nature works in only one way under the well-established laws of gravity and of electromagnetism, another string theory developed around 1995 due to the work of Chris Hull (Queen Mary), Paul Townsend (Cambridge) and Edward Witten (Princeton). "Duality" symmetries between the different string theories were found, which led to the proposal that five theories are different aspects of one theory, called "M theory", whose low-energy limit is eleven-dimensional supergravity. Furthermore, the M-theory was supposed to include higher dimensional surfaces called "branes" as well as strings. The study of these has led to major complications in many areas in the past ten years. Although the experiments of the Quantum Entanglement confirmed accurately the fundamental action at a distance of the well-established laws of gravity and of electric and magnetic forces, theoretical physicists like Hawking, Wikken, and Maldacena believed that string theory is a step for a correct description of universe, because it allows for the combination of a strange quantum field theory and the invalid general relativity. Other physicists such as Feynman, Penrose, and Glashow have criticized string theory for non providing novel experimental predictions at accessible energy scales and wrote that it is a failure as a theory of everything. In fact since energy cannot turn into mass and according to the experiments at CERN started off with a primordial gravitational attraction of long range overcoming the short-ranged electric repulsions between the quark triads. Therefore under the natural laws during the first 0.1 second such primordial quark triads created neutrons, protons, electrons, antineutrinos, positrons, and photons. ' ' CONCLUSIONS According to the well-established natural laws in nature there exist three fundamental forces of gravity electricity and magnetism acting at a distance. In physics, action at a distance is the concept that an object can be moved, changed, or otherwise affected without being physically touched (as in mechanical contact) by another object. That is, it is the fundamental interaction of objects that are separated in space. This fundamental action was used in the well-established laws of gravity and electromagnetism to describe how an object responds to the influence of distant objects. Although the experiments of the Quantum Entanglement confirmed the "action at a distance" today many physicists influenced by the invalid relativity and the false theories of the wrong standard model believe incorrectly that in nature exist fields and particles able to mediate the forces not only of the well-established laws of nature but also fallacious forces of the so-called strong and weak interactions. Category:Fundamental physics concepts